Chapter #15 Solutions - Understanding Weather and Climate - James E Burt, Edward Aguado - 7th Edition

1c. What is climate? Get solution

1ct. Although the Koeppen system is intended to create distinct climate classes, its boundaries are based on the boundaries between vegetation types. Is this really a problem? Can you think of any alternative methods for delineating climates? Get solution

1. Check Figure 15-4 and determine the type of climate you live in. Then log on to http://ggweather.com/normals/index.htm and find the climate information for the location nearest to where you live. Create a climograph for that location and compare it to the example given in the book for the type of climate in which you live, How closely do they match? Get solution

1rq. Describe what is meant by climate. Get solution

1va. Examine the satellite composite map of North American vegetation and answer the following questions:...How many types of Koeppen climates are likely expressed in this image? Get solution

2c. What considerations enter the decision regarding the length of period to use in a climatic average? Get solution

2ct. Do you anticipate that global warming, if it continues as expected, will substantially alter the location of the boundaries of the various Koeppen climates? Get solution

2. Go to the web page for the National Weather Service office nearest to where you live. Compare the monthly temperature and precipitation values observed there during the past year to the average for that location. Were they markedly different? How much variance do you expect to encounter between monthly observed values and climato- logical averages? Get solution

2rq. Describe the general criteria by which the Koeppen system delineates climates. Get solution

2va. Examine the satellite composite map of North American vegetation and answer the following questions:...Do the locations of the vegetation correspond well with those of the Koeppen climates (compare with Figure 15-4)? Explain. Get solution

3c. What are some of the factors that determine the climate of a location? Get solution

3ct. Western Kansas is located near the junction of B, C, and D climates. Do you suppose that a person driving around this region would notice substantial climatic differences as she crossed from one climate zone to another? What does this tell us about the applicability of largerscale classification schemes to smaller-scale analysis? Get solution

3rq. The first-order grouping of climates in the Koeppen system is based mainly on temperature. Which climate type departs from that rule? Get solution

3va. Examine the satellite composite map of North American vegetation and answer the following questions:...Where on the map would you expect to find the coldest and hottest conditions? Wettest and driest? Get solution

4c. What are some of the problems encountered when trying to divide the Earth into climatic zones? Get solution

4rq. Describe the geographical distribution of tropical climates. What features distinguish this particular group? Get solution

5c. What are the five main climate groups in the Koeppen system and what distinguishes them? Get solution

5rq. Briefly describe the fundamental differences between Af, Am, and Aw climates. Get solution

6c. What criteria are used to determine subclimates in each of the Koeppen groups? Get solution

6rq. Of the three types of tropical climates, which occupies the smallest portion of Earth’s land surface? Get solution

7c. What data are shown in a climograph? Get solution

7rq. Despite their low latitudes, tropical climates are not among the hottest on Earth. Why not? Get solution

8c. In what ways are tropical moist climates and tropical monsoons similar? How do they differ? Get solution

8rq. Where are the various dry climates located, and what geographical characteristics cause them to occur where they do? Get solution

9c. What is a savanna, and with what type of climate is it associated? Get solution

9rq. Describe the four types of dry climates and explain how they differ from each other. Get solution

10c. Explain why low rainfall is an inadequate indicator of dry climates. Get solution

10rq. What factor other than annual precipitation is involved in a climate being defined as dry? Get solution

11c. What accounts for the band of subtropical deserts found between the north and south latitudes of 10° and 30°? Get solution

11rq. Describe the various types of mild midlatitude climates and their distribution. Why is it that two of them locate mostly along the west coast of continents, while the other tends to be on the eastern side? Get solution

12c. What accounts for midlatitude deserts and steppes? Get solution

12rq. Are the mild midlatitude climates really mild? Explain. Get solution

13c. In the context of the Koeppen classification system, what does it mean to say that a midlatitude region has a mild climate? Get solution

13rq. What are the two types of severe midlatitude climates, and how do they differ? Get solution

14c. How are the Mediterranean and marine west coast climates similar? How are they different? Get solution

14rq. Why are severe midlatitude climates missing from the Southern Hemisphere? Get solution

15c. What differentiates the two kinds of severe midlatitude climates? Get solution

15rq. Describe the three types of polar climates and their distributions. Get solution

16c. Why don’t severe midlatitude climates exist over the oceans? Get solution

17c. What is permafrost and what climate conditions are responsible for its existence? Get solution

18c. What temperature criterion delimits ice cap climates? Get solution

19c. What are the characteristics of the subarctic climate such as that of Verkhoyansk, Russia? Get solution

20c. Why is there relatively little precipitation in polar climates? Get solution

21c. Why are highlands treated as a separate climate zone? Get solution

Chapter #14.2 Solutions - Understanding Weather and Climate - James E Burt, Edward Aguado - 7th Edition

1fs. Smog in Southern CaliforniaLos Angeles has long had a reputation for extremely bad air quality—and for good reason. Of all the cities in the United States, Los Angeles is the only one classified by the Environmental Protection Agency asan “extreme area” of noncompliance with ozone standards. A number of factors work together to make the air quality bad enough to earn this dubious distinction. As shown in Figure 14-2-1.Los Angeles occupies part of a basin bounded by mountains to the north and east that block the free movement of pollutants by the sea breeze, while the presence of a subsidence inversion during the warmer months restricts vertical dispersion. Add to that the typically cloud-free conditions during the midday period that trigger photochemical reactions. And finally there is the city's well-known love affair with the automobile, which contributes much of the estimated 2 million kilograms (2200 tons) of hydrocarbons and 1 million kilograms (1200 tons) of NOx released each day into the four-county South Coast Air Basin.During the summer, daily concentrations of photochemical smog vary on a regular basis in the course of a day. Prior to the morning rush hour, residual primary and secondary pollutants from the previous day leave a background level of air pollution. As traffic increases during the morning, emissions increase substantially.Early morning winds are usually weak, which leads to little movement of pollutants. At the same time, the low Sun angle and common presence of early morning fog and low clouds inhibit photochemical activity. The situation normally changes by late morning. A sea breeze usually develops along the coast and moves pollutants inland, while clearing skies and increasing Sun angles increase photochemical conversions.As the sea breeze develops, a boundary called a sea breeze front separates the relatively clean marine air from the more polluted, drier air ahead. As the sea breeze front moves inland, it pushes the emissions eastward or northeastward. This often creates a strong gradient in ozone concentrations near the sea breeze front, with relatively clean air behind it and increasing concentrations to the east or northeast (Figure 14-2-2). By late afternoon, the cities in the eastern portion of the basin get the full onslaught of the ad-vected pollutants, while local commuters add their own contribution to the photochemical smog. As a result, pollution levels can become extraordinarily high in the areas downwind of Los Angeles.The area to the south of Los Angeles—including Orange and San Diego counties—also has a significant air pollution problem. Usually the air pollution in San Diego, some 150 km (100 mi) to the south, is of local origin. During severe episodes, however, most of the pollution originates over Los Angeles and Orange counties and gets carried into San Diego by the wind. These episodes often occur as Santa Ana winds die out. During the Santa Ana, the easterly winds force the basin's pollutants offshore. As the Santa Ana begins to weaken, a thermally induced low-pressure system over the eastern desert stretches into the San Diego area. This creates a northwesterly flow that transports pollution originating over Los Angeles and Orange counties. A number of state-mandated rules have had a remarkable effect on air quality, such as biannual smog checks on vehicles, special pollution-reducing gasoline blends during the summer period, and rubber sleeves on gas pump nozzles that capture escaping fumes. Figure 14-2-3 illustrates the dramatic and consistent improvement in air quality in the Los Angeles area, showing both the number of days that ozone exceeded federal guidelines and the maximum eight-hour average of ozone. Though ozone pollution is still a serious problem, the number of days with excessive concentrations is about half of what it was during the late 1970s....FIGURE 14-2-2 Smog Pattern. The map shows a typical pattern of smog on a summer afternoon in the Los Angeles basin. Highest ozone concentrations (shown by dashed lines with units of parts per hundred million) occur in the northeast, ahead of the sea breeze front. Solid lines show the wind direction....Describe some of the reasons why Los Angeles is so prone to heavy air pollution. Get solution

2fs. Smog in Southern CaliforniaLos Angeles has long had a reputation for extremely bad air quality—and for good reason. Of all the cities in the United States, Los Angeles is the only one classified by the Environmental Protection Agency asan “extreme area” of noncompliance with ozone standards. A number of factors work together to make the air quality bad enough to earn this dubious distinction. As shown in Figure 14-2-1.Los Angeles occupies part of a basin bounded by mountains to the north and east that block the free movement of pollutants by the sea breeze, while the presence of a subsidence inversion during the warmer months restricts vertical dispersion. Add to that the typically cloud-free conditions during the midday period that trigger photochemical reactions. And finally there is the city's well-known love affair with the automobile, which contributes much of the estimated 2 million kilograms (2200 tons) of hydrocarbons and 1 million kilograms (1200 tons) of NOx released each day into the four-county South Coast Air Basin.During the summer, daily concentrations of photochemical smog vary on a regular basis in the course of a day. Prior to the morning rush hour, residual primary and secondary pollutants from the previous day leave a background level of air pollution. As traffic increases during the morning, emissions increase substantially.Early morning winds are usually weak, which leads to little movement of pollutants. At the same time, the low Sun angle and common presence of early morning fog and low clouds inhibit photochemical activity. The situation normally changes by late morning. A sea breeze usually develops along the coast and moves pollutants inland, while clearing skies and increasing Sun angles increase photochemical conversions.As the sea breeze develops, a boundary called a sea breeze front separates the relatively clean marine air from the more polluted, drier air ahead. As the sea breeze front moves inland, it pushes the emissions eastward or northeastward. This often creates a strong gradient in ozone concentrations near the sea breeze front, with relatively clean air behind it and increasing concentrations to the east or northeast (Figure 14-2-2). By late afternoon, the cities in the eastern portion of the basin get the full onslaught of the ad-vected pollutants, while local commuters add their own contribution to the photochemical smog. As a result, pollution levels can become extraordinarily high in the areas downwind of Los Angeles.The area to the south of Los Angeles—including Orange and San Diego counties—also has a significant air pollution problem. Usually the air pollution in San Diego, some 150 km (100 mi) to the south, is of local origin. During severe episodes, however, most of the pollution originates over Los Angeles and Orange counties and gets carried into San Diego by the wind. These episodes often occur as Santa Ana winds die out. During the Santa Ana, the easterly winds force the basin's pollutants offshore. As the Santa Ana begins to weaken, a thermally induced low-pressure system over the eastern desert stretches into the San Diego area. This creates a northwesterly flow that transports pollution originating over Los Angeles and Orange counties. A number of state-mandated rules have had a remarkable effect on air quality, such as biannual smog checks on vehicles, special pollution-reducing gasoline blends during the summer period, and rubber sleeves on gas pump nozzles that capture escaping fumes. Figure 14-2-3 illustrates the dramatic and consistent improvement in air quality in the Los Angeles area, showing both the number of days that ozone exceeded federal guidelines and the maximum eight-hour average of ozone. Though ozone pollution is still a serious problem, the number of days with excessive concentrations is about half of what it was during the late 1970s....FIGURE 14-2-2 Smog Pattern. The map shows a typical pattern of smog on a summer afternoon in the Los Angeles basin. Highest ozone concentrations (shown by dashed lines with units of parts per hundred million) occur in the northeast, ahead of the sea breeze front. Solid lines show the wind direction....How does the sea breeze front influence Los Angeles air quality? Get solution

Chapter #14.1 Solutions - Understanding Weather and Climate - James E Burt, Edward Aguado - 7th Edition

1fs. Severe Pollution EpisodesThough many of us live in places where poor air quality is a disturbing fact of life, much progress in solving the problem has been made in the developed world in recent decades, with the result that the most disastrous types of smog events are a thing of the past. Consider, for example, what is probably the most famous air pollution episode in recent history—the one that hit London, England, between December 5 and 9, 1952. In this five-day period, a combination of stagnant, damp air and the burning of low-quality coal produced a lethal mixture of smoke and fog. An estimated 3500 to 4000 people—mostly children, elderly, and the already infirm—died as a direct result of the episode.The most famous air pollution disaster in North America occurred in Donora, Pennsylvania, 50 km (30 mi) from Pittsburgh. Between October 26 and 31,1948, sulfur, carbon monoxide, and heavy metal dusts emitted from the American Steel & Wire's Zinc Works mixed with a dense radiation fog to create what has been called the “Hiroshima of air pollution.” Four days of intense smog took on even greater proportions by Saturday, October 30. Fans at a high school football game were unable to see the events happening on the field. Others left the game early as word came that family members at home had died or were hospitalized from respiratory problems brought on by the smog. Those who tried to evacuate the town were unable to leave because near-zero visibility completely stalled traffic. By Sunday morning firefighters were bringing oxygen to people who were unable to breathe, but relief was only temporary as the departing firefighters felt their way over to the next victim requiring assistance. On Sunday morning, officials finally closed down the Zinc Works, and later that day the smog was finally washed away by rain—but only after 20 people had died and 7000 people had been hospitalized. It is widely believed that the Donora event was the principal catalyst in the enactment of antipollution legislation in the United States (see Figure 14-1-1).FIGURE 14-1-1 Pittsburgh's Air Quality Like some other former industrial centers, Pittsburgh's air quality has undergone a huge improvement due to the closure of foundries and factories. These photos show (a) Pittsburgh in 1906 and (b) the same scene in 1986....What caused the 1952 London smog episode? Get solution

2fs. Severe Pollution EpisodesThough many of us live in places where poor air quality is a disturbing fact of life, much progress in solving the problem has been made in the developed world in recent decades, with the result that the most disastrous types of smog events are a thing of the past. Consider, for example, what is probably the most famous air pollution episode in recent history—the one that hit London, England, between December 5 and 9, 1952. In this five-day period, a combination of stagnant, damp air and the burning of low-quality coal produced a lethal mixture of smoke and fog. An estimated 3500 to 4000 people—mostly children, elderly, and the already infirm—died as a direct result of the episode.The most famous air pollution disaster in North America occurred in Donora, Pennsylvania, 50 km (30 mi) from Pittsburgh. Between October 26 and 31,1948, sulfur, carbon monoxide, and heavy metal dusts emitted from the American Steel & Wire's Zinc Works mixed with a dense radiation fog to create what has been called the “Hiroshima of air pollution.” Four days of intense smog took on even greater proportions by Saturday, October 30. Fans at a high school football game were unable to see the events happening on the field. Others left the game early as word came that family members at home had died or were hospitalized from respiratory problems brought on by the smog. Those who tried to evacuate the town were unable to leave because near-zero visibility completely stalled traffic. By Sunday morning firefighters were bringing oxygen to people who were unable to breathe, but relief was only temporary as the departing firefighters felt their way over to the next victim requiring assistance. On Sunday morning, officials finally closed down the Zinc Works, and later that day the smog was finally washed away by rain—but only after 20 people had died and 7000 people had been hospitalized. It is widely believed that the Donora event was the principal catalyst in the enactment of antipollution legislation in the United States (see Figure 14-1-1).FIGURE 14-1-1 Pittsburgh's Air Quality Like some other former industrial centers, Pittsburgh's air quality has undergone a huge improvement due to the closure of foundries and factories. These photos show (a) Pittsburgh in 1906 and (b) the same scene in 1986....What event was most responsible for the enactment of air pollution abatement laws in the United States? Get solution

Chapter #14 Solutions - Understanding Weather and Climate - James E Burt, Edward Aguado - 7th Edition

1c. What are the major sources of particulates? Get solution

1ct. There has been much improvement in air quality for North America as a whole. Further improvements will only arise from measures that may be costly, both directly through the application of technology and by reductions in certain economic activities. Do you personally believe that further improvements can be brought about at a cost that people are willing to bear? Get solution

1. Examine the map in Figure 14-15 or Figure 14-16. How is the air pollution situation in your area? Is the information on the map consistent with your perception of the local air quality? What factors do yon think lead to the type of air quality that your area has? Get solution

1rq. Explain the distinction between primary and secondary pollutants. Get solution

1va. Examine the photograph below of Hangzhou, a city in eastern China and answer the following questions?...What activities can you identify that are creating air pollution? Get solution

2c. How are the processes of gravitational settling and scavenging similar? How are they different? Get solution

2ct. Visit the web page at http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/GlobalMaps/ and form your own conclusions about whether air pollution is now primarily a local or a global process. Get solution

2. Visit the web page at www.epa.gov/air/partners.html for a listing of EPA, state, and local agencies that provide data on air quality, Refer to one of the agencies for a daily report on the air quality in your area. How do the changes in air quality fluctuate with different weather patterns where you live? Get solution

2rq. What are particulates and how are they introduced into the atmosphere? Get solution

2va. Examine the photograph below of Hangzhou, a city in eastern China and answer the following questions?...Which types of pollutants do you think are being emitted by each activity? Get solution

3c. Pick one of the following atmospheric pollutants and explain its causes and effects: carbon oxides, sulfur compounds, nitrogen compounds, volatile organic compounds. Get solution

3ct. It is believed that global warming during the past few decades might have been even greater were it not for the effect of certain types of air pollution. Explain how this could come about. Get solution

3. If you live in or near an urban area, make note of the daily maximum and minimum temperatures in your region. Do you detect a significant urban heat island? How does the magnitude of this heat island compare for maximum and minimum temperatures? Are there seasonal differences? Get solution

3rq. What are the two processes most responsible for removing particulates from the atmosphere? Get solution

4c. Is acid precipitation a primary or secondary pollutant? Explain. Get solution

4rq. What are PM10 and PM25? Does one pose a greater health risk than the other? Get solution

5c. What are two important reasons why ozone levels in photochemical smog should be reduced? Explain. Get solution

5rq. List the most important gases that contribute to air pollution. Get solution

6c. What are two main factors that can disperse or concentrate air pollutants? Get solution

6rq. What are the primary sources of carbon monoxide in the atmosphere? If these sources are nonanthropogenic, why is CO considered a pollutant? Get solution

7c. What are typical heights for the base of Los Angeles inversions? Why is the height of the inversion base important? Get solution

7rq. In what way does carbon monoxide harm the human body? Get solution

8c. How does the Clean Air Act mandate the reduction in air pollution? Get solution

8rq. What are the primary sources of sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide in the atmosphere? Get solution

9c. Which air pollutants have undergone the most dramatic reductions since 1990? Get solution

9rq. Would a person be more likely to notice the presence of high CO or high SO2 contents in the ambient air? Get solution

10c. Why does the intensity of an urban heat island vary spatially across a city? Get solution

10rq. Which primary pollutant is most likely to promote the formation of acid fog or acid rain? Get solution

11c. What are some ways in which a city could reduce the heat island effect? Get solution

11rq. Why is nitric oxide much less common in the atmosphere than nitrogen dioxide? Get solution

12rq. Describe the general composition of volatile organic compounds. Get solution

13rq. How do London-type and Los Angeles-type smog differ from each other? Get solution

14rq. Which pollutant gases cause a noticeable coloration of the atmosphere? Which have a characteristic odor? Get solution

15rq. Describe the various atmospheric controls that affect the concentration of air pollutants. Get solution

16rq. How does the construction of buildings in cities alter the radiation exchange near the surface and contribute to the urban heat island effect? Get solution

17rq. Describe the way in which heat storage in cities differs from that of surrounding rural areas. Get solution

18rq. What effect does urbanization have on the exchange of sensible and latent heat? Get solution

19rq. Does the urban heat island manifest itself equally during the day and night? Are there seasonal differences in the magnitude of the heat island effect? Get solution

Chapter #13.2 Solutions - Understanding Weather and Climate - James E Burt, Edward Aguado - 7th Edition

1fa. Special Forecasts and Observations for PilotsThe National Weather Service offers comprehensive weather information and forecasts for aviators that is readily accessible from the Aviation Weather Center’s Aviation Digital Data Service (ADDS). These data are readily accessible at www.aviationweather.gov/adds(Figure 13-2-1). Some of the more commonly used resources are described below. In some cases information is presented using abbreviations and codes. For a complete description of the codes and conventions used in these reports, you can download at no cost a copy of Aviation Weather Services, Advisory Circular 00-45G Change 1 (the URL is a long one, so it’s easiest to access if you do a web search for the document and click on the link).Aviation Routine Weather Reports (METARs)METARs are issued by airports on an hourly basis and provide basic weather observations. These reports present observations in a string of “groups.” Each airport is represented by a four-digit identifier, followed by the time of observation and a modifier report describing the data source. The coding system used is somewhat archaic but usually easy to decipher; at other times it is less obvious. But this problem is now remedied by the option to click on a “translation” of the data that presents the information in real words. The ADDS website also has an interactive Java tool that allows the user to scroll over a map and have the data immediately displayed.Aviation Selected Special Weather Reports (SPECIs)Though METARs are issued every hour, weather conditions can sometimes change dramatically between reports to a level that might be important for aviators. When this happens, the AWC issues Aviation Selected Special Weather Reports, or SPECIs, These are formatted the same way as METARS and are differentiated from them by the use of SPECI as the type of report preceding the station identifier.Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPs)Weather data from airports help pilots prepare for takeoffs and landings, but aviators also need information on flight conditions along their flight route. This type of information is provided to the Aviation Weather Center by pilots themselves and then disseminated to the rest of the aviation community. PIREPs report on icing, turbulence, wind, or other conditions at designated flight levels. As with METARs and SPECIs, the ADDS website offers decoded versions of the reports and a Java tool for easy access.Significant Meteorological Information (SIGMETs)SIGMETs alert pilots to existing or expected weather conditions that could impact aircraft safety. The threats could involve severe icing, heavy turbulence, sandstorms or dust storms, or airborne volcanic ash. These are issued by regional Meteorological. Watch Offices (MWOs) and remain valid for a periods of up to four hours (they can be reissued an unlimited number of times). Most SIGMETs are classified as non-convective; convective SIGMETs are issued when thunderstorms may lead to extreme turbulence, icing, or low-level wind shear.Short-Range Surface Prognostic Charts (PROG) and Low-Level, Midlevel, and High-Level Significant Weather (SIGWX) ChartsYou have seen numerous examples of surface and upper-air maps in this and previous chapters of this text, all of which are useful to pilots. In addition to these, the Aviation Weather Center compiles specialized maps for the aviation community—both for current conditions and forecasts up to 48 hours These maps are tailored to the needs of pilots and highlight weather conditions of special importance to aviators.FIGURE 13-2-1 Aviation Weather. The home page for the Aviation Weather Center’s Aviation Digital Data Service....What NWS agency disseminates products of use to pilots? Get solution

2fa. Special Forecasts and Observations for PilotsThe National Weather Service offers comprehensive weather information and forecasts for aviators that is readily accessible from the Aviation Weather Center’s Aviation Digital Data Service (ADDS). These data are readily accessible at http://www.aviationweather.gov/adds (Figure 13-2-1). Some of the more commonly used resources are described below. In some cases information is presented using abbreviations and codes. For a complete description of the codes and conventions used in these reports, you can download at no cost a copy of Aviation Weather Services, Advisory Circular 00-45G Change 1 (the URL is a long one, so it’s easiest to access if you do a web search for the document and click on the link).Aviation Routine Weather Reports (METARs)METARs are issued by airports on an hourly basis and provide basic weather observations. These reports present observations in a string of “groups.” Each airport is represented by a four-digit identifier, followed by the time of observation and a modifier report describing the data source. The coding system used is somewhat archaic but usually easy to decipher; at other times it is less obvious. But this problem is now remedied by the option to click on a “translation” of the data that presents the information in real words. The ADDS website also has an interactive Java tool that allows the user to scroll over a map and have the data immediately displayed.Aviation Selected Special Weather Reports (SPECIs)Though METARs are issued every hour, weather conditions can sometimes change dramatically between reports to a level that might be important for aviators. When this happens, the AWC issues Aviation Selected Special Weather Reports, or SPECIs, These are formatted the same way as METARS and are differentiated from them by the use of SPECI as the type of report preceding the station identifier.Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPs)Weather data from airports help pilots prepare for takeoffs and landings, but aviators also need information on flight conditions along their flight route. This type of information is provided to the Aviation Weather Center by pilots themselves and then disseminated to the rest of the aviation community. PIREPs report on icing, turbulence, wind, or other conditions at designated flight levels. As with METARs and SPECIs, the ADDS website offers decoded versions of the reports and a Java tool for easy access.Significant Meteorological Information (SIGMETs)SIGMETs alert pilots to existing or expected weather conditions that could impact aircraft safety. The threats could involve severe icing, heavy turbulence, sandstorms or dust storms, or airborne volcanic ash. These are issued by regional Meteorological. Watch Offices (MWOs) and remain valid for a periods of up to four hours (they can be reissued an unlimited number of times). Most SIGMETs are classified as non-convective; convective SIGMETs are issued when thunderstorms may lead to extreme turbulence, icing, or low-level wind shear.Short-Range Surface Prognostic Charts (PROG) and Low-Level, Midlevel, and High-Level Significant Weather (SIGWX) ChartsYou have seen numerous examples of surface and upper-air maps in this and previous chapters of this text, all of which are useful to pilots. In addition to these, the Aviation Weather Center compiles specialized maps for the aviation community—both for current conditions and forecasts up to 48 hours These maps are tailored to the needs of pilots and highlight weather conditions of special importance to aviators.FIGURE 13-2-1 Aviation Weather. The home page for the Aviation Weather Center’s Aviation Digital Data Service....Describe five forecasting products issued primarily for aviation purposes. Get solution

Chapter #13.1 Solutions - Understanding Weather and Climate - James E Burt, Edward Aguado - 7th Edition

1fs. Forecasting the Winter of 2013-2014Usually we think of weather forecasts in terms of whether tonight’s baseball game might be cancelled or if a stroll through the park is a good idea or not. But forecasting the arrival of major weather events is the primary mission of a NWS forecaster—the agency’s number one responsibility is the protection of life and property. We saw earlier in this chapter that the seasonal forecast did not anticipate the kind of winter that actually occurred. The societal ramifications of a failed seasonal forecast are probably fairly minor, however, compared to a failed short-term forecast.Consider, for example, the major snow and ice storm that hit the Southeast on January 28, 2014. Many residents of Atlanta, Georgia, and—most importantly—numerous city officials believed that heavy snow would hit the general area but fall mostly to the south of the city. As a result, schools and businesses remained open and people took the roads for their homeward journey in the afternoon as usual. But the snow proved to be quite heavy and motorists found themselves stuck on highways made impassable by the snow. Some people remained in their cars for up to 11 hours. The hardship wasn’t limited to the Atlanta area, as snow across the Deep South totally shut down traffic (Figure 13-1-1). In Birmingham, Alabama, hundreds of schoolchildren spent the night at school and did not return home until the next day.Was the Atlanta experience the fault of an errant forecast? Not really. The previous evening forecasters had called off a winter storm warning for Atlanta, but advised that a small change in overall conditions could cause a major changein where and when snow would arrive. Then during the predawn hours the local NWS office reissued a winter storm warning and advised that snow would likely begin in the midmorning and continue through the following morning. They also specifically indicated that snow-covered roads and reduced visibility would make travel difficult.This weather event highlighted one of the biggest difficulties in weather forecasts: dealing with precipitation amounts that may vary a lot over short distances. In some cases the transition from heavy snow to a light dusting may occur over a few tens of miles. Thus, a forecast that is generally correct may be off the mark for people on either side of the transition zone. Similarly, a very minor error in forecasted temperature can mean that people expecting a moderate rainfall may instead find themselves slogging through deep snow. Forecasters generally try to convey these uncertainties to the public and emergency managers....FIGURE 13-1-1 Ice Storm, January 28, 2014. Parents in Birmingham, Alabama leave their cars and walk to pick up high school students stranded overnight.What could residents and officials have done differently to reduce the impact of the January 2014 snowstorm? Get solution

2fs. Forecasting the Winter of 2013-2014Usually we think of weather forecasts in terms of whether tonight’s baseball game might be cancelled or if a stroll through the park is a good idea or not. But forecasting the arrival of major weather events is the primary mission of a NWS forecaster—the agency’s number one responsibility is the protection of life and property. We saw earlier in this chapter that the seasonal forecast did not anticipate the kind of winter that actually occurred. The societal ramifications of a failed seasonal forecast are probably fairly minor, however, compared to a failed short-term forecast.Consider, for example, the major snow and ice storm that hit the Southeast on January 28, 2014. Many residents of Atlanta, Georgia, and—most importantly—numerous city officials believed that heavy snow would hit the general area but fall mostly to the south of the city. As a result, schools and businesses remained open and people took the roads for their homeward journey in the afternoon as usual. But the snow proved to be quite heavy and motorists found themselves stuck on highways made impassable by the snow. Some people remained in their cars for up to 11 hours. The hardship wasn’t limited to the Atlanta area, as snow across the Deep South totally shut down traffic (Figure 13-1-1). In Birmingham, Alabama, hundreds of schoolchildren spent the night at school and did not return home until the next day.Was the Atlanta experience the fault of an errant forecast? Not really. The previous evening forecasters had called off a winter storm warning for Atlanta, but advised that a small change in overall conditions could cause a major changein where and when snow would arrive. Then during the predawn hours the local NWS office reissued a winter storm warning and advised that snow would likely begin in the midmorning and continue through the following morning. They also specifically indicated that snow-covered roads and reduced visibility would make travel difficult.This weather event highlighted one of the biggest difficulties in weather forecasts: dealing with precipitation amounts that may vary a lot over short distances. In some cases the transition from heavy snow to a light dusting may occur over a few tens of miles. Thus, a forecast that is generally correct may be off the mark for people on either side of the transition zone. Similarly, a very minor error in forecasted temperature can mean that people expecting a moderate rainfall may instead find themselves slogging through deep snow. Forecasters generally try to convey these uncertainties to the public and emergency managers....FIGURE 13-1-1 Ice Storm, January 28, 2014. Parents in Birmingham, Alabama leave their cars and walk to pick up high school students stranded overnight.What factors can make the prediction of heavy snow particularly difficult? Get solution

Chapter #13 Solutions - Understanding Weather and Climate - James E Burt, Edward Aguado - 7th Edition

1c. What is a zone forecast? Get solution

1ct. Why will the climatological, persistence, and analog approaches never be entirely eliminated from the process of weather prediction? Get solution

1. Go to die website www.nws.noaa.gov/organization.php and click on the National Weather Service office nearest to you. Make note of the 24-hour forecast and follow up the next day to see if the forecast was correct. Do this for extended forecasts as well. In general, do you find the forecasts to be accurate? Get solution

1rq. Briefly describe some of the variables that complicate weather forecasting. Get solution

1va. Examine the surface and 500 mb maps for January 6, 2014, and answer the following questions:...What kind of temperatures might be expected for the eastern and western United States? Explain. Get solution

2c. What are the roles of physical models and statistical models in weather forecasting? Explain. Get solution

2ct. If a forecast calls for a 70 percent chance of rain and no precipitation occurs, was the forecast actually wrong? What if this happens two days in a row? Ten days? Get solution

2. During times of unusual or inclement weather, visit the websites listed below to obtain weather map, satellite, radar, and thermodynamic diagram information. Is the weather you are experiencing consistent with what you would have expected based on the information you obtained? Get solution

2rq. Describe the basic characteristics of climatological forecasts, persistence forecasts, the analog approach, and numerical forecasting. Get solution

2va. Examine the surface and 500 mb maps for January 6, 2014, and answer the following questions:...Where are the areas most likely to experience precipitation currently and within the next 24 hours? Explain. Get solution

3c. What factors complicate the prediction of temperature at a given point? Get solution

3ct. What would have to happen to the data acquisition network for the analysis phase of forecasting to be bypassed? Get solution

3. On a daily basis, make use of the available information from the websites listed below and make your own forecast (before reading the official forecast for your area). Then compare your forecast to that of the local weather office. Are your forecasts generally consistent with those of professional meteorologists? Get solution

3rq. What are the distinguishing characteristics of quantitative, qualitative, and probability forecasts? Get solution

4c. Why is the prediction of water vapor in the atmosphere so complicated? Get solution

4ct. Are further improvements in weather forecasting more likely to occur for large-scale phenomena or for smaller- scale events? Explain your answer. Get solution

4. Read the forecast discussion on the web page of your local weather service office each day. These discussions explain the meteorologists reasons for making their particular forecasts. Determine how this elaborates on the zone forecast for the same area. Get solution

4rq. Explain how weather data are obtained and disseminated to agencies across the globe. Get solution

5c. Define climatological forecasts and persistence forecasts. Get solution

5rq. What are radiosondes and rawinsondes? What other sources of upper-atmosphere information are available to forecasters? Get solution

6c. How do analog approaches and numerical weather forecasting differ? Get solution

6rq. Describe the analysis, prediction, and postprocessing phases in numerical forecasting. Get solution

7c. What is a quantitative forecast? Get solution

7rq. What are model output statistics? Get solution

8c. What are probability forecasts? Get solution

8rq. What are the primary characteristics of short-range, medium-range, and long-range forecasts? What types of information are needed to prepare the individual forecasts? Get solution

9c. What are two important elements of forecast quality? Get solution

9rq. What is ensemble forecasting? Get solution

10c. What is forecast skill? Get solution

10rq. Describe the station model used for surface weather maps. How is the information presented on the station model? What measures must be used to convert the numerical data on the station model to real values? Get solution

11c. Describe the ground-based instruments for obtaining automated weather information. Get solution

11rq. Describe the characteristics of the 850 mb, 700 mb, 500 mb, 300 mb, and 200 mb maps that make each of them useful to forecasting. Get solution

12c. What types of systems gather information about weather variables away from the surface? Get solution

12rq. Which upper-level weather map would you use to locate short waves? Get solution

13c. What are the three phases of numerical modeling? Get solution

13rq. Why are omega highs significant? Which map is best for identifying them? Get solution

14c. What is the role of a forecaster with regard to the use of numerical modeling? Get solution

14rq. What is an isotach? Get solution

15c. What is ensemble forecasting and how is it used? Get solution

15rq. Which maps are most useful for locating the polar jet stream? [Hint: recall that the polar jet is found at altitudes near 10km.] Get solution

16c. Which type of forecasting does the production of a seasonal outlook most resemble: climatological forecasting, persistence forecasting, or analog forecasting? Explain. Get solution

16rq. Describe the three types of satellite images discussed in this chapter. What characteristics make them useful? Get solution

17c. Draw a station model, showing where the temperature, dew point, wind speed and direction, cloud conditions, and sea-level pressure are indicated. Get solution

17rq. Describe how radar works and how its information is presented. Get solution

18c. How are maps of the 850 mb level used? The 700 mb level? The 500 mb level? Get solution

18rq. Explain what a thermodynamic diagram does and how it is constructed. Get solution

19c. Which type of satellite imagery would be most useful in detecting differences in the altitude of cloud tops? Get solution

19rq. Describe the lifted index and the K-index. How are they valuable to forecasters? Get solution

20c. How is a radar composite map produced and how could it be useful in forecasting? Get solution

21c. What data are shown on a thermodynamic diagram? Get solution

22c. What are the lifted index and K-index useful for? Get solution

23c. Describe some of the important considerations with respect to model scale. Get solution

24c. What are the two major types of representations of forecast models? Get solution