Chapter #17 Solutions - Understanding Weather and Climate - James E Burt, Edward Aguado - 7th Edition

1c. What happens to light if it enters a medium of higher density? Get solution

1ct. Consider the way the apparent position of the Sun sweeps across the sky over the course of the day (see Chapter 2). How will the period of twilight vary between summer and winter where you live? Will twilight conditions generally last longer in the tropics or in the high latitudes? After answering this question, go to Question 1 in the Problems and Exercises section and check to see if your answer was correct. Get solution

1. Refer to the website http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/RST_defs.php#top, and look up the definitions of civil, nautical, and astronomical twilight. Then use the available tables to determine the length of day where you live for March 21, June 21, September 21, and December 21 of the current year, Does the length of day show significant differences using each of the three definitions of twilight? How do these differences vary throughout the year? Get solution

1rq. What is refraction and why is it related to variations in atmospheric density? Get solution

1va. Observe the optical phenomenon shown in this image and identify the type of cloud that must be present to create that feature.... Get solution

2c. What direction does light bend if it moves through a medium of varying density? Get solution

2ct. Can falling ice crystals produce rainbows? Explain why or why not. Get solution

2. On hot, sunny days, look for the presence of mirages. Are they equally apparent in all directions? If not, why do you think that might be the case? Also, check to see how long they remain visible. Do they still persist at sunset? Get solution

2rq. Describe the way refraction alters the apparent position of the setting or rising Sun. Get solution

2va. What do you know about the composition of the cloud, based on the presence of this optical feature?... Get solution

3c. At sunset is the Sun above or below the horizon? Explain why. Get solution

3ct. Can altostratus clouds produce halos? Explain why or why not. Get solution

3rq. Do longer or shorter wavelengths of light undergo greater refraction when passing through the atmosphere? How does the differential refraction cause an apparent banding of the Sun near the horizon? Get solution

3va. What type of change in the cloud would be needed for it to produce a corona instead of the existing feature?... Get solution

4c. What accounts for the reddish color of light near sunrise or sunset? Get solution

4ct. Which of the optical phenomena described in this chapter are most likely to occur where you live? Are they equally likely to appear at all times of the year? Get solution

4rq. Which type of vertical temperature gradient promotes the appearance of superior and inferior mirages? Get solution

4va. What conditions would have to exist with regard to the cloud composition and its orientation with regard to a viewer for it to produce a sun pillar?... Get solution

5c. What are inferior mirages and superior mirages? Get solution

5ct. In Chapter 3 we discussed Rayleigh, Mie, and nonselective scattering. What similarities and dissimilarities exist among those scattering processes and the optical effects caused by refraction, reflection, and diffraction that were discussed in this chapter? Get solution

5rq. How do some mirages create the appearance of standing water on hot days? Get solution

6c. Can mirages be seen only in the desert? Explain why or why not. Get solution

6ct. Explain why superior mirages do not occur over land on hot, sunny days. Get solution

6rq. Explain why the Sun must be behind you when you see a rainbow. Get solution

7c. Describe the spatial relationship among the Sun, raindrops, and an observer for a primary rainbow. Get solution

7rq. Describe the difference in the way primary and secondary rainbows form. Get solution

8c. What accounts for the fact that a primary rainbow has an angular size of about 85°? Get solution

8rq. Why are rainbow bands concentric circles? Get solution

9c. Why are bands in a rainbow concentric circles rather than some other shape? Get solution

9rq. How does the color pattern of a secondary rainbow differ from that of a primary rainbow? Get solution

10c. What is the relationship between the observer, a cloud, and the Sun when a halo is seen? Get solution

10rq. In addition to refraction, what process must occur within raindrops to produce a rainbow? Get solution

11c. Explain the two sizes of halos. Get solution

11rq. How are sundogs formed? Describe the color patterns associated with them. Get solution

12c. What factors account for the differences among halos, sun dogs, and sun pillars? Get solution

12rq. Describe the formation of sun pillars. Does refraction play a role in their formation? Get solution

13c. What process produces coronas and glories? Explain. Get solution

13rq. Explain how coronas are formed around the Sun or Moon. What factor or factors determine their size? Get solution

14rq. What are glories, and how are they formed? Are they the result of refraction alone or is another process also involved? Get solution

Chapter #16.4 Solutions - Understanding Weather and Climate - James E Burt, Edward Aguado - 7th Edition

1fs. Challenges, Mitigation, and AdaptationAlthough the IPCC assessment reports are authoritative and comprehensive, they are not the sole compendium on climate change. For example, a team of over 300 distinguished experts assembled the 2014 Third National Climate Assessment (MCA) to summarize the impacts of climate change on the United States (www.globalchange.gov). The report discussed much of what had been released in the fifth IPCC report, but emphasized effects of climate change in the United States, both in terms of geographical regions and individual sectors, such as energy, transportation, agriculture, ecosystems, and human health. It also discussed measures that can be taken to mitigate climate change, and ways society can adapt to a new climatic regime.TemperatureThe NCA reported that the global increase in temperature has occurred in the United States, just as it has over the most of the world. The group estimates that since 1895 U.S. temperatures have increased by 0.7 to 1.1 °C (1.3 to 1.9 °F), with the majority of the warming having occurred after 1970. As has been the case worldwide, the most dramatic of the North American warming has occurred in the higher latitudes—Alaska and the Canadian north. Specific projections of future U.S. temperatures are subject to even greater uncertainty than those of global values, but the range of temperature increases varies from 1.7 to 2.8 °C (3 to 5 °F) under low emission scenarios to as much as 2.8 to 5.6 °C (5 to 10°F) under high greenhouse gas conditions by the end of the century.PrecipitationThe percentage of annual precipitation that occurs from extremely heavy events (those in the top 1 percent for each location) has increased in recent decades over all of the United States, particularly in the extreme Northeast (Figure 16-4-1). If this trend continues these regions will become susceptible to increased urban and flash flooding. In the dry Southwest no major change has been noted in the percentage of precipitation occurring during extreme events, but there has been a high incidence of extreme, extensive, and prolonged droughts. This has led to direct water resource issues as the demand increases while supplies dwindle. There is also the indirect effect in which drought leads to the drying of vegetation and the susceptibility to devastating wildfires.Impacts on Economic SectorsThe effects of climate change show up in virtually every sector of modern society. The NCA elaborates on many of these issues in depth, but here we provide just a brief overview of a few impacts.EnergyWhile we often think about the consumption of energy as a source of greenhouse gas emissions, climate changes impact the demand for energy as well.As temperatures increase the amount of energy needed for heating is expected to decrease, but the demand for indoor air conditioning will increase. As the U.S. population continues to move to places like Arizona and Texas, we can expect to see the demand for energy to meet that need increase through time.AgricultureSome effects of climate change on agriculture are fairly direct and obvious. A decrease in the frequency of freezing temperatures might be beneficial to Florida citrus growers, and some crops could benefit by the longer growing season associated with warmer climates. But at the same time, higher temperatures can lead to greater evaporation rates and an increased demand for irrigation water, which might not always be met. Indirect effects include the uncertain ways that weeds and pests might thrive and impact crop production. It has also been shown that higher nighttime temperatures during the pollinating season have led to lower productivity and quality of many crops. With regard to precipitation, the projected increases in the incidence of extremely heavy rainfall events might reasonably be expected to accelerate soil erosion.HealthBetween 1978 and 2007 extreme heat has killed nearly as many people in the United States as tornadoes, hurricanes, and lightning put together, which makes the projected increase in temperatures a major direct threat to human health. People without access to air conditioning—often those who are poor and elderly—face an enhanced risk of becoming heat-related fatalities. But higher temperatures can also be associated with increased air pollution, and many insects that spread disease proliferate under hot, humid conditions.Mitigation and AdaptationBeing aware of the threat of climate change gives us the opportunity to undertake measures that might slow down the rate of change (mitigation) and reduce its negative impacts (adaptation).MitigationBy far the most important measure that can be taken to slow the rate of anthropogenic climate change is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This can be promoted or even mandated by governments, but such actions face resistance due to economic costs that might be incurred. Some reductions can occur independent of mandates, for example, by a switch from higher polluting sources to “cleaner” fuels. This has happened to some extent through the increased use of natural gas in the United States. Economic slowdowns can naturally reduce emissions by reducing manufacturing and transportation activities. It is important to realize that carbon dioxide has a long residence time (Chapter 1) in the atmosphere, so even drastic cutbacks would not lower its concentration in the at mosphere for decades. On the other hand, other pollutants like methane and soot have much shorter residence times. Cutting back their emissions could have more immediate impacts on the rate of climate change.AdaptationThe first step in adapting to a changing world is recognizing that such change is happening. Once people accept the fact that climate change is happening—even if many questions remain regarding its specific manifestations—we can begin to take earlier actions rather than having to react later in crisis mode. Given the many different ways that climate changes will impact different regions, there is no single adaptive strategy for universal use. Coastal regions vulnerable to inundation need to plan for such occurrences, while some heartland areas must prepare for more damaging heat waves and droughts. In much of the West, an ongoing threat will be drought and wildfires. Regardless, understanding of the problem and a willingness to tackle it are prerequisites.FIGURE 16-4-1 Annual Precipitation Changes, 1958-2012. Precipitation has increased over most of the continental United States in the last half century, particularly over the Northeast....In what ways did the National Climate Assessment augment the findings of the IPCC? Get solution

2fs. Challenges, Mitigation, and AdaptationAlthough the IPCC assessment reports are authoritative and comprehensive, they are not the sole compendium on climate change. For example, a team of over 300 distinguished experts assembled the 2014 Third National Climate Assessment (MCA) to summarize the impacts of climate change on the United States (www.globalchange.gov). The report discussed much of what had been released in the fifth IPCC report, but emphasized effects of climate change in the United States, both in terms of geographical regions and individual sectors, such as energy, transportation, agriculture, ecosystems, and human health. It also discussed measures that can be taken to mitigate climate change, and ways society can adapt to a new climatic regime.TemperatureThe NCA reported that the global increase in temperature has occurred in the United States, just as it has over the most of the world. The group estimates that since 1895 U.S. temperatures have increased by 0.7 to 1.1 °C (1.3 to 1.9 °F), with the majority of the warming having occurred after 1970. As has been the case worldwide, the most dramatic of the North American warming has occurred in the higher latitudes—Alaska and the Canadian north. Specific projections of future U.S. temperatures are subject to even greater uncertainty than those of global values, but the range of temperature increases varies from 1.7 to 2.8 °C (3 to 5 °F) under low emission scenarios to as much as 2.8 to 5.6 °C (5 to 10°F) under high greenhouse gas conditions by the end of the century.PrecipitationThe percentage of annual precipitation that occurs from extremely heavy events (those in the top 1 percent for each location) has increased in recent decades over all of the United States, particularly in the extreme Northeast (Figure 16-4-1). If this trend continues these regions will become susceptible to increased urban and flash flooding. In the dry Southwest no major change has been noted in the percentage of precipitation occurring during extreme events, but there has been a high incidence of extreme, extensive, and prolonged droughts. This has led to direct water resource issues as the demand increases while supplies dwindle. There is also the indirect effect in which drought leads to the drying of vegetation and the susceptibility to devastating wildfires.Impacts on Economic SectorsThe effects of climate change show up in virtually every sector of modern society. The NCA elaborates on many of these issues in depth, but here we provide just a brief overview of a few impacts.EnergyWhile we often think about the consumption of energy as a source of greenhouse gas emissions, climate changes impact the demand for energy as well.As temperatures increase the amount of energy needed for heating is expected to decrease, but the demand for indoor air conditioning will increase. As the U.S. population continues to move to places like Arizona and Texas, we can expect to see the demand for energy to meet that need increase through time.AgricultureSome effects of climate change on agriculture are fairly direct and obvious. A decrease in the frequency of freezing temperatures might be beneficial to Florida citrus growers, and some crops could benefit by the longer growing season associated with warmer climates. But at the same time, higher temperatures can lead to greater evaporation rates and an increased demand for irrigation water, which might not always be met. Indirect effects include the uncertain ways that weeds and pests might thrive and impact crop production. It has also been shown that higher nighttime temperatures during the pollinating season have led to lower productivity and quality of many crops. With regard to precipitation, the projected increases in the incidence of extremely heavy rainfall events might reasonably be expected to accelerate soil erosion.HealthBetween 1978 and 2007 extreme heat has killed nearly as many people in the United States as tornadoes, hurricanes, and lightning put together, which makes the projected increase in temperatures a major direct threat to human health. People without access to air conditioning—often those who are poor and elderly—face an enhanced risk of becoming heat-related fatalities. But higher temperatures can also be associated with increased air pollution, and many insects that spread disease proliferate under hot, humid conditions.Mitigation and AdaptationBeing aware of the threat of climate change gives us the opportunity to undertake measures that might slow down the rate of change (mitigation) and reduce its negative impacts (adaptation).MitigationBy far the most important measure that can be taken to slow the rate of anthropogenic climate change is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This can be promoted or even mandated by governments, but such actions face resistance due to economic costs that might be incurred. Some reductions can occur independent of mandates, for example, by a switch from higher polluting sources to “cleaner” fuels. This has happened to some extent through the increased use of natural gas in the United States. Economic slowdowns can naturally reduce emissions by reducing manufacturing and transportation activities. It is important to realize that carbon dioxide has a long residence time (Chapter 1) in the atmosphere, so even drastic cutbacks would not lower its concentration in the at mosphere for decades. On the other hand, other pollutants like methane and soot have much shorter residence times. Cutting back their emissions could have more immediate impacts on the rate of climate change.AdaptationThe first step in adapting to a changing world is recognizing that such change is happening. Once people accept the fact that climate change is happening—even if many questions remain regarding its specific manifestations—we can begin to take earlier actions rather than having to react later in crisis mode. Given the many different ways that climate changes will impact different regions, there is no single adaptive strategy for universal use. Coastal regions vulnerable to inundation need to plan for such occurrences, while some heartland areas must prepare for more damaging heat waves and droughts. In much of the West, an ongoing threat will be drought and wildfires. Regardless, understanding of the problem and a willingness to tackle it are prerequisites.FIGURE 16-4-1 Annual Precipitation Changes, 1958-2012. Precipitation has increased over most of the continental United States in the last half century, particularly over the Northeast....Describe some of the impacts of climate change in the United States. Get solution

3fs. Challenges, Mitigation, and AdaptationAlthough the IPCC assessment reports are authoritative and comprehensive, they are not the sole compendium on climate change. For example, a team of over 300 distinguished experts assembled the 2014 Third National Climate Assessment (MCA) to summarize the impacts of climate change on the United States (www.globalchange.gov). The report discussed much of what had been released in the fifth IPCC report, but emphasized effects of climate change in the United States, both in terms of geographical regions and individual sectors, such as energy, transportation, agriculture, ecosystems, and human health. It also discussed measures that can be taken to mitigate climate change, and ways society can adapt to a new climatic regime.TemperatureThe NCA reported that the global increase in temperature has occurred in the United States, just as it has over the most of the world. The group estimates that since 1895 U.S. temperatures have increased by 0.7 to 1.1 °C (1.3 to 1.9 °F), with the majority of the warming having occurred after 1970. As has been the case worldwide, the most dramatic of the North American warming has occurred in the higher latitudes—Alaska and the Canadian north. Specific projections of future U.S. temperatures are subject to even greater uncertainty than those of global values, but the range of temperature increases varies from 1.7 to 2.8 °C (3 to 5 °F) under low emission scenarios to as much as 2.8 to 5.6 °C (5 to 10°F) under high greenhouse gas conditions by the end of the century.PrecipitationThe percentage of annual precipitation that occurs from extremely heavy events (those in the top 1 percent for each location) has increased in recent decades over all of the United States, particularly in the extreme Northeast (Figure 16-4-1). If this trend continues these regions will become susceptible to increased urban and flash flooding. In the dry Southwest no major change has been noted in the percentage of precipitation occurring during extreme events, but there has been a high incidence of extreme, extensive, and prolonged droughts. This has led to direct water resource issues as the demand increases while supplies dwindle. There is also the indirect effect in which drought leads to the drying of vegetation and the susceptibility to devastating wildfires.Impacts on Economic SectorsThe effects of climate change show up in virtually every sector of modern society. The NCA elaborates on many of these issues in depth, but here we provide just a brief overview of a few impacts.EnergyWhile we often think about the consumption of energy as a source of greenhouse gas emissions, climate changes impact the demand for energy as well.As temperatures increase the amount of energy needed for heating is expected to decrease, but the demand for indoor air conditioning will increase. As the U.S. population continues to move to places like Arizona and Texas, we can expect to see the demand for energy to meet that need increase through time.AgricultureSome effects of climate change on agriculture are fairly direct and obvious. A decrease in the frequency of freezing temperatures might be beneficial to Florida citrus growers, and some crops could benefit by the longer growing season associated with warmer climates. But at the same time, higher temperatures can lead to greater evaporation rates and an increased demand for irrigation water, which might not always be met. Indirect effects include the uncertain ways that weeds and pests might thrive and impact crop production. It has also been shown that higher nighttime temperatures during the pollinating season have led to lower productivity and quality of many crops. With regard to precipitation, the projected increases in the incidence of extremely heavy rainfall events might reasonably be expected to accelerate soil erosion.HealthBetween 1978 and 2007 extreme heat has killed nearly as many people in the United States as tornadoes, hurricanes, and lightning put together, which makes the projected increase in temperatures a major direct threat to human health. People without access to air conditioning—often those who are poor and elderly—face an enhanced risk of becoming heat-related fatalities. But higher temperatures can also be associated with increased air pollution, and many insects that spread disease proliferate under hot, humid conditions.Mitigation and AdaptationBeing aware of the threat of climate change gives us the opportunity to undertake measures that might slow down the rate of change (mitigation) and reduce its negative impacts (adaptation).MitigationBy far the most important measure that can be taken to slow the rate of anthropogenic climate change is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This can be promoted or even mandated by governments, but such actions face resistance due to economic costs that might be incurred. Some reductions can occur independent of mandates, for example, by a switch from higher polluting sources to “cleaner” fuels. This has happened to some extent through the increased use of natural gas in the United States. Economic slowdowns can naturally reduce emissions by reducing manufacturing and transportation activities. It is important to realize that carbon dioxide has a long residence time (Chapter 1) in the atmosphere, so even drastic cutbacks would not lower its concentration in the at mosphere for decades. On the other hand, other pollutants like methane and soot have much shorter residence times. Cutting back their emissions could have more immediate impacts on the rate of climate change.AdaptationThe first step in adapting to a changing world is recognizing that such change is happening. Once people accept the fact that climate change is happening—even if many questions remain regarding its specific manifestations—we can begin to take earlier actions rather than having to react later in crisis mode. Given the many different ways that climate changes will impact different regions, there is no single adaptive strategy for universal use. Coastal regions vulnerable to inundation need to plan for such occurrences, while some heartland areas must prepare for more damaging heat waves and droughts. In much of the West, an ongoing threat will be drought and wildfires. Regardless, understanding of the problem and a willingness to tackle it are prerequisites.FIGURE 16-4-1 Annual Precipitation Changes, 1958-2012. Precipitation has increased over most of the continental United States in the last half century, particularly over the Northeast....What are the different approaches involved in mitigation and adaptation to climate change? Get solution

Chapter #16.3 Solutions - Understanding Weather and Climate - James E Burt, Edward Aguado - 7th Edition

1fs. Plant Migrations and Global ChangeAs global temperatures have warmed and cooled, plant communities have responded by migrating poleward during periods of glacial retreat and equatorward as glaciers advanced. For example, large tracts of species such as spruce that once inhabited much of what is now the northern and northeastern United States have shifted northward into Canadian regions formerly covered by glacial ice.The rate at which plant communities can migrate in response to changing climates is important to their survival, If plant communities are too slow to adapt to changing conditions, the vegetation type faces possible extinction. Because of the possibility of future rapid increases in global temperatures, scientists are concerned about the potential for major changes in Earth’s plant communities. It is clear that some species in a plant community might be better able to expand their boundaries than others. Such changes in the rate of migration for individual species would lead to a change in the plant community, in which the overall composition of the plants in the new environment is different from what it previously was. For example, trees have longer life spans and reproductive cycles than brushy plants, and therefore take longer to adapt to changing environmental conditions.Moreover, the expansion of suburbs and agriculture into previously undisturbed areas has caused some plant communities to become fragmented. In other words, instead of having extensive areas of a particular plant community, those vegetation associations now occur in isolated patches. The fragmentation of these communities hinders their ability to migrate in response to climate change and could make some future migrations impossible.An interesting example of rapid vegetation change due to increasing temperatures has been observed in the grasslands of northeastern Colorado (Figure 16-3-1). A trend toward increasing nighttime temperatures has caused the average date of the last killing frost to occur earlier in the spring. This has put the normally dominant grass species—the blue grama, which historically has accounted for 90 percent of the ground cover—at a competitive disadvantage compared to various weeds. The weeds that are taking over the grasslands landscape are far more susceptible to drought. This is highly significant to ranchers who rely on the grass cover to supply most of their livestock’s food needs.FIGURE 16-3-1 Prairie at Pawnee National Grassland, northeastern Colorado....How does climate change pose challenges to plant communities? Get solution

2fs. Plant Migrations and Global ChangeAs global temperatures have warmed and cooled, plant communities have responded by migrating poleward during periods of glacial retreat and equatorward as glaciers advanced. For example, large tracts of species such as spruce that once inhabited much of what is now the northern and northeastern United States have shifted northward into Canadian regions formerly covered by glacial ice.The rate at which plant communities can migrate in response to changing climates is important to their survival, If plant communities are too slow to adapt to changing conditions, the vegetation type faces possible extinction. Because of the possibility of future rapid increases in global temperatures, scientists are concerned about the potential for major changes in Earth’s plant communities. It is clear that some species in a plant community might be better able to expand their boundaries than others. Such changes in the rate of migration for individual species would lead to a change in the plant community, in which the overall composition of the plants in the new environment is different from what it previously was. For example, trees have longer life spans and reproductive cycles than brushy plants, and therefore take longer to adapt to changing environmental conditions.Moreover, the expansion of suburbs and agriculture into previously undisturbed areas has caused some plant communities to become fragmented. In other words, instead of having extensive areas of a particular plant community, those vegetation associations now occur in isolated patches. The fragmentation of these communities hinders their ability to migrate in response to climate change and could make some future migrations impossible.An interesting example of rapid vegetation change due to increasing temperatures has been observed in the grasslands of northeastern Colorado (Figure 16-3-1). A trend toward increasing nighttime temperatures has caused the average date of the last killing frost to occur earlier in the spring. This has put the normally dominant grass species—the blue grama, which historically has accounted for 90 percent of the ground cover—at a competitive disadvantage compared to various weeds. The weeds that are taking over the grasslands landscape are far more susceptible to drought. This is highly significant to ranchers who rely on the grass cover to supply most of their livestock’s food needs.FIGURE 16-3-1 Prairie at Pawnee National Grassland, northeastern Colorado....Describe one way in which human activities make it difficult for plant species to migrate in response to climate change. Get solution

Chapter #16.2 Solutions - Understanding Weather and Climate - James E Burt, Edward Aguado - 7th Edition

1fs. Carbon Dioxide and the OceansWhite the absorption of CO2 may sound entirely fortuitous, it brings about the problem of acidification of the oceans. When CO2 is absorbed by water, it creates carbonic acid, and this has led to some acidification of the ocean waters. Figure 16-2-1 shows the changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide since 1960, along with amount of oceanic carbon dioxide and pH since the 1980s. There is a very close correspondence between oceanic and atmospheric levels. At the same time, the dissolved CO2 causes the water to have a greater acidity (lower pH).This can have deleterious effects on oceanic organisms with calcareous shells and exoskeletons, such as coral (Figure 16-2-2). As described earlier in this chapter, coral are small marine organisms with hard shells composed largely of calcium carbonate. But as oceans become more acidic, coral have a more difficult time accumulating calcium carbonate. This increased acidity has already caused a substantial reduction in the growth rate of corals in the Great Barrier Reef of Australia, one of the world’s great natural wonders.We know with certainty that atmospheric carbon dioxide contents will continueto increase during this century and that some CO2 emissions will continueto diffuse into the oceans. But there is less certainty about whether the oceans will continue to absorb atmospheric contents at their current rate. Several factors are involved in this issue. The first is that greater atmosphere–ocean differences in the concentration of any particular gas increase the rate of transfer. In other words, an increase in atmospheric CO2 by itself would lead to greater diffusion into the oceans But counter to this is the fact that warmer waters are less capable of maintaining carbon dioxide, and oceanic surface temperatures will also be increasing. The situation is further muddled by the complexity and uncertainty of future movements of oceanic currents—in particular, patterns of sinking and upwelling—as well as the ability of plants and plankton to obtain CO2 through photosynthesis.Despite these uncertainties, we do know that carbon dioxide will continue to diffuse into the oceans and lead to increasing acidity and associated ecological impacts.FIGURE 16-2-1 Ocean Acidification. Rising atmospheric carbon dioxide contents have coincided with increasing amounts of oceanic CO2. As a result, oceans have become more acidic (lower pH)....FIGURE 16-2-2 A Coral Reef....How have changes in the CO2 content of the atmosphere affected the chemistry of ocean water? Get solution

2fs. Carbon Dioxide and the OceansWhite the absorption of CO2 may sound entirely fortuitous, it brings about the problem of acidification of the oceans. When CO2 is absorbed by water, it creates carbonic acid, and this has led to some acidification of the ocean waters. Figure 16-2-1 shows the changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide since 1960, along with amount of oceanic carbon dioxide and pH since the 1980s. There is a very close correspondence between oceanic and atmospheric levels. At the same time, the dissolved CO2 causes the water to have a greater acidity (lower pH).This can have deleterious effects on oceanic organisms with calcareous shells and exoskeletons, such as coral (Figure 16-2-2). As described earlier in this chapter, coral are small marine organisms with hard shells composed largely of calcium carbonate. But as oceans become more acidic, coral have a more difficult time accumulating calcium carbonate. This increased acidity has already caused a substantial reduction in the growth rate of corals in the Great Barrier Reef of Australia, one of the world’s great natural wonders.We know with certainty that atmospheric carbon dioxide contents will continueto increase during this century and that some CO2 emissions will continueto diffuse into the oceans. But there is less certainty about whether the oceans will continue to absorb atmospheric contents at their current rate. Several factors are involved in this issue. The first is that greater atmosphere–ocean differences in the concentration of any particular gas increase the rate of transfer. In other words, an increase in atmospheric CO2 by itself would lead to greater diffusion into the oceans But counter to this is the fact that warmer waters are less capable of maintaining carbon dioxide, and oceanic surface temperatures will also be increasing. The situation is further muddled by the complexity and uncertainty of future movements of oceanic currents—in particular, patterns of sinking and upwelling—as well as the ability of plants and plankton to obtain CO2 through photosynthesis.Despite these uncertainties, we do know that carbon dioxide will continue to diffuse into the oceans and lead to increasing acidity and associated ecological impacts.FIGURE 16-2-1 Ocean Acidification. Rising atmospheric carbon dioxide contents have coincided with increasing amounts of oceanic CO2. As a result, oceans have become more acidic (lower pH)....FIGURE 16-2-2 A Coral Reef....Why are changes in the CO2 content of ocean water a problem for some ocean organisms? Get solution

Chapter #16.1 Solutions - Understanding Weather and Climate - James E Burt, Edward Aguado - 7th Edition

1fs. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate ChangeYou have probably heard about the current debates around climate change and global warming. You may think of climate change as a problem in remote polar regions and mountain ranges, where ice sheets and glaciers are melting, and wonder if it’s true that climate change is already affecting the regions where most people live. The fact is that it has indeed occurredand will continue to do so. And these changes are not restricted to increases in temperature and the melting of ice sheets and glaciers; very strong evidence leads us to the conclusion that there have been and will continue to be changes in the occurrence of extremely heavy precipitation events, the frequency and intensity of droughts, and the concomitant changes in the cost of food and energy. These climate changes are discussed later in the chapter. The best single source for documenting these changes is the current report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).The IPCC was established in 1988 under the auspices of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Its mandates included the assessment of the current knowledge about climate changes (including an analysis of what is not known), discussion of how these changes impact the global, environment and socioeconomic activity, and the development of policy recommendations.The panel is composed of three working groups: Working Group t (WGI) analyzes the state of scientific knowledge of climate change, Working Group II (WGII) reports on its human and environmental impacts, and Working Group III (WGIII) offers mitigation strategies. None of the working groups is charged with undertaking new research; their responsibility is to present an overview of the state of knowledge in each of their respective areas. This is particularly significant because the IPCC reports do not reflect the views of just a select group of people, but rather a consensus of the scientific community at large about what it knows and does not know about climate change.The assessment report released in 2013 was the fifth since the inception of the panel. Like the earlier reports, it incorporated the most recent findings into its analysis and made use of improvements in computer modeling, enhanced satellite data acquisition, and further observational evidence The report was a massive collective effort; it was authored by more than 150 expert climate scientists from 30 countries and was subject to review by another 600 experts. Extensive opportunity was provided for comment by governments, organizations, and individuals. Indeed, more than 30,000 written comments were submitted, and editors were required to ensure an adequate response to all substantive submissions. Draft documents were given two rounds of review. Each assessment report also described the level of uncertainty in its analyses, with explicit definitions for qualitative characterizations. (The “extremely likely” role of humans in the observed warming mentioned previously is one such example.)In summary, the IPCC reportsarenot position papers prepared by a group of scientists intent on espousing a particular viewpoint. Rather, they are the scientific community’s response to a request for informed analysis of the current state of the physical science surrounding climate change. The IPCC reports represent the most comprehensive and authoritative summary available on a topic of intense interest and great importance for both humans and the naturalrealm. In 2007 the group was collectively awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, along with former United States Vice President Al Gore, who has campaigned to spread information on the seriousness of global warmingSummarize the purpose and makeup of the IPCC. Get solution

2fs. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate ChangeYou have probably heard about the current debates around climate change and global warming. You may think of climate change as a problem in remote polar regions and mountain ranges, where ice sheets and glaciers are melting, and wonder if it’s true that climate change is already affecting the regions where most people live. The fact is that it has indeed occurredand will continue to do so. And these changes are not restricted to increases in temperature and the melting of ice sheets and glaciers; very strong evidence leads us to the conclusion that there have been and will continue to be changes in the occurrence of extremely heavy precipitation events, the frequency and intensity of droughts, and the concomitant changes in the cost of food and energy. These climate changes are discussed later in the chapter. The best single source for documenting these changes is the current report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).The IPCC was established in 1988 under the auspices of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Its mandates included the assessment of the current knowledge about climate changes (including an analysis of what is not known), discussion of how these changes impact the global, environment and socioeconomic activity, and the development of policy recommendations.The panel is composed of three working groups: Working Group t (WGI) analyzes the state of scientific knowledge of climate change, Working Group II (WGII) reports on its human and environmental impacts, and Working Group III (WGIII) offers mitigation strategies. None of the working groups is charged with undertaking new research; their responsibility is to present an overview of the state of knowledge in each of their respective areas. This is particularly significant because the IPCC reports do not reflect the views of just a select group of people, but rather a consensus of the scientific community at large about what it knows and does not know about climate change.The assessment report released in 2013 was the fifth since the inception of the panel. Like the earlier reports, it incorporated the most recent findings into its analysis and made use of improvements in computer modeling, enhanced satellite data acquisition, and further observational evidence The report was a massive collective effort; it was authored by more than 150 expert climate scientists from 30 countries and was subject to review by another 600 experts. Extensive opportunity was provided for comment by governments, organizations, and individuals. Indeed, more than 30,000 written comments were submitted, and editors were required to ensure an adequate response to all substantive submissions. Draft documents were given two rounds of review. Each assessment report also described the level of uncertainty in its analyses, with explicit definitions for qualitative characterizations. (The “extremely likely” role of humans in the observed warming mentioned previously is one such example.)In summary, the IPCC reportsarenot position papers prepared by a group of scientists intent on espousing a particular viewpoint. Rather, they are the scientific community’s response to a request for informed analysis of the current state of the physical science surrounding climate change. The IPCC reports represent the most comprehensive and authoritative summary available on a topic of intense interest and great importance for both humans and the naturalrealm. In 2007 the group was collectively awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, along with former United States Vice President Al Gore, who has campaigned to spread information on the seriousness of global warmingDescribe the process used to assemble the 2013 IPCC report. What aspects of the process were designed to ensure its objectivity and accuracy? Get solution

Chapter #16 Solutions - Understanding Weather and Climate - James E Burt, Edward Aguado - 7th Edition

1c. What are the boundary conditions of a system? Get solution

1ct. There is little doubt most of the wanning of recent decades is due to the activities of humans, but some are not convinced dut the effect of this warming will be problematic for society. How would you argue for and against this viewpoint? Get solution

1. Go to the website www.pewclimate.org and check to see if it includes any new press releases. If so, what are the major findings contained in them? Are these findings actually new or do they expand on known information? Get solution

1rq. Define climatic change and discuss the practical difficulties of identifying climatic change from observations. Get solution

1va. The attached maps show the current distribution of quaking aspen trees and their projected distribution for 2090, assuming a substantial increase in greenhouse gas concentrations....What general change in distribution is expected to take place? Get solution

2c. How do positive and negative feedback processes affect changes in climate induced by outside agents? Explain. Get solution

2ct. In addition to changes in average temperature and precipitation, it is believed that the frequency of unusual events (such as droughts and floods) might be more common as a result of global warming. What regions of North America are more vulnerable to economic losses from these events than from increased temperatures? Get solution

2. Open the Weather in Motion module, “Retreat of Continental Ice Sheets,” on this book’s website, Move the cursor on the map so that you can observe the retreat of the Northern Hemisphere glaciers during the last 21,000 years. Did the ice retreat uniformly across North America? Where in the Northern Hemisphere did the ice first begin to retreat? Get solution

2rq. Explain how cores taken from ocean deposits and ice sheets can be used to infer past climate conditions. Get solution

2va. The attached maps show the current distribution of quaking aspen trees and their projected distribution for 2090, assuming a substantial increase in greenhouse gas concentrations....Given the fact that temperatures will increase substantially by 2090, what does that tell you about the type of climate conditions favored by quaking aspen? Get solution

3c. How is it possible to infer past climate conditions for times before climate records were kept? Get solution

3ct. As recently as 20,000 years ago a continental glacier extended as far south as the central United States. Describe what impacts the ice might have had on the average position and magnitude of the polar jet stream. Get solution

3. Check your favorite newspaper or news magazine to see if there are any articles describing new findings about climate change or political issues related to the topic. How would you rank the importance of climate change relative to other major political issues? Get solution

3rq. Describe two types of remnant landforms that can provide information on past climates in a region. Get solution

3va. The attached maps show the current distribution of quaking aspen trees and their projected distribution for 2090, assuming a substantial increase in greenhouse gas concentrations....This projected distribution change involves the movement of a type of tree to different elevation ranges. What kind of changes might happen for trees that exist outside of mountainous regions? Get solution

4c. Explain how the following can provide evidence for past climates: ocean-floor rocks, ice cores, relict landforms, tree rings. Get solution

4ct. Explain how climate scientists used multiple simulations based on several different GCMs to determine the relative contributions of natural and human forcings to climate change. Get solution

4rq. How are tree cores used as indicators of past climates? Get solution

5c. What does the term “snowball Earth” refer to? Get solution

5ct. What are two ways in which positive feedback mechanisms involving the cryosphere could enhance temperature increases in the Arctic in coming decades? Get solution

5rq. Describe how pollen samples obtained from old soils provide information on past climates. Get solution

6c. What is one major trend in Earth’s climate during the last 50 million years? Explain. Get solution

6rq. Explain how it is possible that the global climate can be both cooling and warming at the same time. Get solution

7c. Should Earth be considered a “warm” planet or a “cold” planet? Explain. Get solution

7rq. How does the present climate compare to past climates over the course of geologic history? Is it correct to say the ice age is over? Get solution

8c. How have climates of the Holocene generally differed from those in the preceding epoch? Get solution

8rq. Describe the frequency at which glacial/interglacial cycles have occurred during the Pleistocene. Get solution

9c. How do you think the climate of the Little Ice Age may have affected human populations in Europe? Get solution

9rq. What time frames constitute the Pleistocene and Holocene epochs? Get solution

10c. How does global climate in the last century compare with average conditions during the last 1000 years? Get solution

10rq. What magnitude of mean temperature differences coincided with the various glacial/interglacial episodes of the Pleistocene? Get solution

11c. Define the following terms: eccentricity, obliquity, precession. Get solution

11rq. Which regions of North America experienced the greatest temperature differences from current values during the last glacial episode of the Pleistocene? Get solution

12c. How do cyclical variations in Earth’s orbit, including Milankovitch cycles, affect climate? Explain. Get solution

12rq. List the factors that can lead to climatic change. At what time scales do each of these occur? Get solution

13c. Explain how can tropospheric aerosols can promote both cooling and warming. Get solution

13rq. Describe the factors that can lead to variations in the amount of solar radiation available at the top of Earth’s atmosphere. Get solution

14c. How does an increase in greenhouse gases change the effective emission altitude? What role does this effect play in global warming? Get solution

14rq. What evidence is there that variations in sunspot activity do or do not lead to climate changes on Earth? Get solution

15c. List three other anthropogenic gases in addition to CO2. What is their contribution to global warming? Get solution

15rq. How do changes in eccentricity and obliquity and precession interact to influence Earth’s climate? What time scales apply to each? Get solution

16c. Describe the ice-albedo feedback. As a positive feedback, does it necessarily lead to global warming? Explain. Get solution

16rq. What types of occurrences on Earth can affect atmospheric turbidity? How do turbidity differences affect global temperatures? Get solution

17c. How do changes in water vapor and clouds affect atmospheric temperatures? Use the concepts of positive and negative feedback in your answer. Get solution

17rq. Describe positive and negative feedbacks and provide examples of each. Get solution

18c. Explain the relationship between CO2 levels in the atmosphere and plant growth. Get solution

18rq. What is a general circulation model? Get solution

19c. Why have scientists predicted that the West Antarctic ice sheet is melting? Get solution

19rq. What reasons are there to think projections from GCMs can be trusted? Get solution

20c. What is the thermohaline circulation? Get solution

21c. Climatologists have hypothesized that, in the past, pulses of freshwater from melting glaciers in what is now Canada may have disrupted the flow of warm surface waters across the North Atlantic Ocean toward western Europe. How might this have affected that region’s climate? Get solution

22c. What physical principles and boundary conditions are used in building general circulation models of the atmosphere? Get solution

23c. Look at the two graphs in Figure 16–28. How do the differences between the two graphs help in deciding whether the global warming is attributable to natural or human causes? Get solution

24c. Which event(s) in Table 16-2 might be most likely to cause problems in the area where you live during this century? Explain. Get solution

Chapter #15.2 Solutions - Understanding Weather and Climate - James E Burt, Edward Aguado - 7th Edition

1fs. North American PrairiesWe have seen that climatic boundaries generally coincide with vegetation boundaries, but it is noteworthy that humans can greatly modify extant vegetation. The great prairies once reached from the southern parts of the Canadian Plains southward to Texas and westward to the Rocky Mountain foothills and extended to the east into the Great Lakes region. Prairies consist primarily of grasses, along with some herbs and shrubs and the exclusion of trees.Many factors are involved in creating prairie environments. Large temperature differences between summer and winter are common and precipitation is lower than that of most woodland areas. Precipitation across North America generally increases eastward from the foothills of the Rockies, and natural prairie populations have reflected this by having taller grasses eastward.Nonclimatic factors also play a role in the existence of prairies. The existence of periodic fire is important because it prevents the incursion of trees that, unlike prairie grasses, do not quickly regenerate in the wake of burns. Like other ecosystems, prairies maintain an interaction between the vegetation and animal species. In North America bison fed on unlimited grass and at the same time helped maintain the grass by naturally tilling the soil with their very narrow hooves (Figure 15-2-1).The extent of this major ecosystem has been reduced greatly in North America since the westward expansion. The reduction has been particularly acute where the tall grass prairies once ruled; in Illinois only an estimated 0,1 percent of the original prairie still exists. An estimated 20 to 25 percent of the short grass prairie still exists farther to the west.The biggest culprit in the demise of prai-rielands is expansion by humans. Prairie soils are particularly fertile and valuable for agriculture. Urban expansion has also played a role. Even where people have not taken over prairielands, fire suppression has facilitated the expansion of trees into former grasslands. There is also a threat from the spread of nonnative species.As we will see in Chapter 16, climates have been changing and will continue to do so. These changes may have significant effects on the plants and animals from all ecosystems, including North American prairies.FIGURE 15-2-1 North American Prairies. Bison qrazinq in Custer State Park, South Dakota....What climatic factors explain the existence of the North American prairie? Get solution

2fs. North American PrairiesWe have seen that climatic boundaries generally coincide with vegetation boundaries, but it is noteworthy that humans can greatly modify extant vegetation. The great prairies once reached from the southern parts of the Canadian Plains southward to Texas and westward to the Rocky Mountain foothills and extended to the east into the Great Lakes region. Prairies consist primarily of grasses, along with some herbs and shrubs and the exclusion of trees.Many factors are involved in creating prairie environments. Large temperature differences between summer and winter are common and precipitation is lower than that of most woodland areas. Precipitation across North America generally increases eastward from the foothills of the Rockies, and natural prairie populations have reflected this by having taller grasses eastward.Nonclimatic factors also play a role in the existence of prairies. The existence of periodic fire is important because it prevents the incursion of trees that, unlike prairie grasses, do not quickly regenerate in the wake of burns. Like other ecosystems, prairies maintain an interaction between the vegetation and animal species. In North America bison fed on unlimited grass and at the same time helped maintain the grass by naturally tilling the soil with their very narrow hooves (Figure 15-2-1).The extent of this major ecosystem has been reduced greatly in North America since the westward expansion. The reduction has been particularly acute where the tall grass prairies once ruled; in Illinois only an estimated 0,1 percent of the original prairie still exists. An estimated 20 to 25 percent of the short grass prairie still exists farther to the west.The biggest culprit in the demise of prai-rielands is expansion by humans. Prairie soils are particularly fertile and valuable for agriculture. Urban expansion has also played a role. Even where people have not taken over prairielands, fire suppression has facilitated the expansion of trees into former grasslands. There is also a threat from the spread of nonnative species.As we will see in Chapter 16, climates have been changing and will continue to do so. These changes may have significant effects on the plants and animals from all ecosystems, including North American prairies.FIGURE 15-2-1 North American Prairies. Bison qrazinq in Custer State Park, South Dakota....Give an example of a natural factor that helped to maintain the prairie ecosystem. Get solution

Chapter #15.1 Solutions - Understanding Weather and Climate - James E Burt, Edward Aguado - 7th Edition

1. The Thornthwaite Classification SystemAs with any other climate system, Koeppen’s has its shortcomings. One of the most important is that it is based on vegetation boundaries that have been associated with monthly values of mean temperature and precipitation. This is problematic because these two variables alone do not directly determine the geo- graphic limits of natural vegetation. A superior system would also include potential evapotranspiration as a factor that plays a direct role in determining the geographic limits of vegetation.In tandem, the opposing effects of evapotranspiration and precipitation determine the water balance, examples of which are shown in Figure 15-1-1. Wherever evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation, the amount of moisture in the soil is reduced, as its loss is not offset by soil moisture inputs. When precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration, the soil moisture is replenished until it reaches the maximum amount of water that can be retained by the soil against the force of gravity (field capacity).Thornthwaite’s classification systemwas developed to distinguish climates based on moisture availability. It is based on the principle of the water balance and evolved through decades of work that culminated in its final form in 1955. Its first criterion is a moisture index that compares the amount of average precipitation each month to the potential evapotranspiration. The latter value derives from a formula using mean temperatures and the monthly values of average period of daylight (a function of latitude) for each station to establish a monthly moisture index. These monthly values are then summed to produce an annual moisture index, the value of which distinguishes arid, semiarid, sub- humid, humid, and perhumid (very humid) climates. These divisions are based on arbitrary percentage changes in the moisture index (20 percent changes for the humid climates, 33 percent changes for the dry climates), not from associations with plants or other nonclimatic phenomena.The second criterion is the thermal efficiency of a location, or the total amount of potential evapotranspiration (the amount of evaporation that would occur under given climate conditions and assuming an unlimited supply of soil water), The remaining two criteria are based on the seasonality of precipitation and potential evapotranspiration. When combined, the four criteria create a more physically based climate classification scheme than that of Koeppen.So why hasn’t the Thornthwaite system supplanted Koeppen’s as the most popular? This is partly explained by its greater complexity. Compared to Koeppen’s system, the water-balance computations needed by Thornthwaite’s method are laborious, and the resulting regions are therefore quite removed from the underlying climatic data. Thus, the pattern of climates that emerges is harder to interpret in terms of large-scale processes. Also, although the basic concept of potential evapotranspiration is widely accepted, the method developed by Thornthwaite does not follow from physical principles, but instead relies on data collected mainly in the eastern United States. The data were used to construct empirical (observation-based) equations for potential evapotranspiration. Unfortunately, Thornthwaite did not publish details regarding how the equations were developed, and there are questions as to how well they work in other areas. Thus, if Thornthwaite’s method were applied to the entire globe, it is not clear how meaningful the resulting regions would be.Of course, the Koeppen and Thornthwaite systems are not the only systems that have been devised, Most of the others are designed for more specific applications than either of these two Some, for example, have identified regions of human comfort, whereas others consider the dominance of different types of air masses. The familiar map of plant-hardiness zones found on seed packages is another example. More sophistícated classifications have used energy budget considerations.Regardless of the premises on which they are based, each has its own set of advantages and disadvantages.FIGURE 15-1-1 Water Balances. The diagrams illustrate the monthly balances of precipitation, potential evapotranspiration, and actual evapotranspiration for Irkutsk, Russia, and Memphis, Tennessee....In what way is the Thornthwaite system superior to the Koeppen system? Get solution

2. The Thornthwaite Classification SystemAs with any other climate system, Koeppen’s has its shortcomings. One of the most important is that it is based on vegetation boundaries that have been associated with monthly values of mean temperature and precipitation. This is problematic because these two variables alone do not directly determine the geo- graphic limits of natural vegetation. A superior system would also include potential evapotranspiration as a factor that plays a direct role in determining the geographic limits of vegetation.In tandem, the opposing effects of evapotranspiration and precipitation determine the water balance, examples of which are shown in Figure 15-1-1. Wherever evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation, the amount of moisture in the soil is reduced, as its loss is not offset by soil moisture inputs. When precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration, the soil moisture is replenished until it reaches the maximum amount of water that can be retained by the soil against the force of gravity (field capacity).Thornthwaite’s classification systemwas developed to distinguish climates based on moisture availability. It is based on the principle of the water balance and evolved through decades of work that culminated in its final form in 1955. Its first criterion is a moisture index that compares the amount of average precipitation each month to the potential evapotranspiration. The latter value derives from a formula using mean temperatures and the monthly values of average period of daylight (a function of latitude) for each station to establish a monthly moisture index. These monthly values are then summed to produce an annual moisture index, the value of which distinguishes arid, semiarid, sub- humid, humid, and perhumid (very humid) climates. These divisions are based on arbitrary percentage changes in the moisture index (20 percent changes for the humid climates, 33 percent changes for the dry climates), not from associations with plants or other nonclimatic phenomena.The second criterion is the thermal efficiency of a location, or the total amount of potential evapotranspiration (the amount of evaporation that would occur under given climate conditions and assuming an unlimited supply of soil water), The remaining two criteria are based on the seasonality of precipitation and potential evapotranspiration. When combined, the four criteria create a more physically based climate classification scheme than that of Koeppen.So why hasn’t the Thornthwaite system supplanted Koeppen’s as the most popular? This is partly explained by its greater complexity. Compared to Koeppen’s system, the water-balance computations needed by Thornthwaite’s method are laborious, and the resulting regions are therefore quite removed from the underlying climatic data. Thus, the pattern of climates that emerges is harder to interpret in terms of large-scale processes. Also, although the basic concept of potential evapotranspiration is widely accepted, the method developed by Thornthwaite does not follow from physical principles, but instead relies on data collected mainly in the eastern United States. The data were used to construct empirical (observation-based) equations for potential evapotranspiration. Unfortunately, Thornthwaite did not publish details regarding how the equations were developed, and there are questions as to how well they work in other areas. Thus, if Thornthwaite’s method were applied to the entire globe, it is not clear how meaningful the resulting regions would be.Of course, the Koeppen and Thornthwaite systems are not the only systems that have been devised, Most of the others are designed for more specific applications than either of these two Some, for example, have identified regions of human comfort, whereas others consider the dominance of different types of air masses. The familiar map of plant-hardiness zones found on seed packages is another example. More sophistícated classifications have used energy budget considerations.Regardless of the premises on which they are based, each has its own set of advantages and disadvantages.FIGURE 15-1-1 Water Balances. The diagrams illustrate the monthly balances of precipitation, potential evapotranspiration, and actual evapotranspiration for Irkutsk, Russia, and Memphis, Tennessee....Explain why the Thornthwaite system is not more widely used than the Koeppen system. Get solution

Chapter #15 Solutions - Understanding Weather and Climate - James E Burt, Edward Aguado - 7th Edition

1c. What is climate? Get solution

1ct. Although the Koeppen system is intended to create distinct climate classes, its boundaries are based on the boundaries between vegetation types. Is this really a problem? Can you think of any alternative methods for delineating climates? Get solution

1. Check Figure 15-4 and determine the type of climate you live in. Then log on to http://ggweather.com/normals/index.htm and find the climate information for the location nearest to where you live. Create a climograph for that location and compare it to the example given in the book for the type of climate in which you live, How closely do they match? Get solution

1rq. Describe what is meant by climate. Get solution

1va. Examine the satellite composite map of North American vegetation and answer the following questions:...How many types of Koeppen climates are likely expressed in this image? Get solution

2c. What considerations enter the decision regarding the length of period to use in a climatic average? Get solution

2ct. Do you anticipate that global warming, if it continues as expected, will substantially alter the location of the boundaries of the various Koeppen climates? Get solution

2. Go to the web page for the National Weather Service office nearest to where you live. Compare the monthly temperature and precipitation values observed there during the past year to the average for that location. Were they markedly different? How much variance do you expect to encounter between monthly observed values and climato- logical averages? Get solution

2rq. Describe the general criteria by which the Koeppen system delineates climates. Get solution

2va. Examine the satellite composite map of North American vegetation and answer the following questions:...Do the locations of the vegetation correspond well with those of the Koeppen climates (compare with Figure 15-4)? Explain. Get solution

3c. What are some of the factors that determine the climate of a location? Get solution

3ct. Western Kansas is located near the junction of B, C, and D climates. Do you suppose that a person driving around this region would notice substantial climatic differences as she crossed from one climate zone to another? What does this tell us about the applicability of largerscale classification schemes to smaller-scale analysis? Get solution

3rq. The first-order grouping of climates in the Koeppen system is based mainly on temperature. Which climate type departs from that rule? Get solution

3va. Examine the satellite composite map of North American vegetation and answer the following questions:...Where on the map would you expect to find the coldest and hottest conditions? Wettest and driest? Get solution

4c. What are some of the problems encountered when trying to divide the Earth into climatic zones? Get solution

4rq. Describe the geographical distribution of tropical climates. What features distinguish this particular group? Get solution

5c. What are the five main climate groups in the Koeppen system and what distinguishes them? Get solution

5rq. Briefly describe the fundamental differences between Af, Am, and Aw climates. Get solution

6c. What criteria are used to determine subclimates in each of the Koeppen groups? Get solution

6rq. Of the three types of tropical climates, which occupies the smallest portion of Earth’s land surface? Get solution

7c. What data are shown in a climograph? Get solution

7rq. Despite their low latitudes, tropical climates are not among the hottest on Earth. Why not? Get solution

8c. In what ways are tropical moist climates and tropical monsoons similar? How do they differ? Get solution

8rq. Where are the various dry climates located, and what geographical characteristics cause them to occur where they do? Get solution

9c. What is a savanna, and with what type of climate is it associated? Get solution

9rq. Describe the four types of dry climates and explain how they differ from each other. Get solution

10c. Explain why low rainfall is an inadequate indicator of dry climates. Get solution

10rq. What factor other than annual precipitation is involved in a climate being defined as dry? Get solution

11c. What accounts for the band of subtropical deserts found between the north and south latitudes of 10° and 30°? Get solution

11rq. Describe the various types of mild midlatitude climates and their distribution. Why is it that two of them locate mostly along the west coast of continents, while the other tends to be on the eastern side? Get solution

12c. What accounts for midlatitude deserts and steppes? Get solution

12rq. Are the mild midlatitude climates really mild? Explain. Get solution

13c. In the context of the Koeppen classification system, what does it mean to say that a midlatitude region has a mild climate? Get solution

13rq. What are the two types of severe midlatitude climates, and how do they differ? Get solution

14c. How are the Mediterranean and marine west coast climates similar? How are they different? Get solution

14rq. Why are severe midlatitude climates missing from the Southern Hemisphere? Get solution

15c. What differentiates the two kinds of severe midlatitude climates? Get solution

15rq. Describe the three types of polar climates and their distributions. Get solution

16c. Why don’t severe midlatitude climates exist over the oceans? Get solution

17c. What is permafrost and what climate conditions are responsible for its existence? Get solution

18c. What temperature criterion delimits ice cap climates? Get solution

19c. What are the characteristics of the subarctic climate such as that of Verkhoyansk, Russia? Get solution

20c. Why is there relatively little precipitation in polar climates? Get solution

21c. Why are highlands treated as a separate climate zone? Get solution